What Happened
- The Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art (Washington DC) announced the return of three bronze sculptures to the Government of India, following comprehensive provenance research confirming their unlawful removal from Tamil Nadu temples
- The three sculptures are: a Chola-period Shiva Nataraja (~990 CE) from Sri Bhava Aushadesvara Temple in Thanjavur district; a 12th-century Chola-period Somaskanda from the Visvanatha Temple in Mannargudi; and a 16th-century Vijayanagara-period Saint Sundarar with Paravai from a Shiva Temple in Veerasolapuram
- Two bronzes will be physically returned; the Shiva Nataraja will remain at the museum on a long-term loan arrangement agreed with India
- Provenance fraud was established: the Shiva Nataraja was acquired in 2002 from the Doris Wiener Gallery, which provided falsified documentation citing a non-existent "Rajrama Gallery" in London; the other two entered the museum as part of a 1,000-object gift from Arthur M. Sackler in 1987
- Collaboration with the Photo Archives of the French Institute of Pondicherry (IFP) in 2023 confirmed the bronzes were photographed in situ at Tamil Nadu temples between 1956 and 1959, and the ASI confirmed their removal violated Indian laws
Static Topic Bridges
Chola Bronze Sculptures — Lost-Wax (Cire Perdue) Technique
Chola bronzes represent the pinnacle of South Indian metal sculpture, produced during the Chola dynasty's reign from the 9th to the 13th century CE in the Thanjavur region of Tamil Nadu. The technique used is the lost-wax process, known in Sanskrit as Madhuchishtha Vidhana and in French as cire perdue. An artist sculpts the figure in beeswax mixed with kungiliyam (a natural resin), encases it in clay moulds, heats it to melt the wax out, and then pours molten metal into the cavity. The metal used is traditionally panchaloha (five-metal alloy) — gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead — considered sacred.
- Chola dynasty period: 9th-13th century CE; major patrons include Rajaraja I and Rajendra I
- Bronze processional deities are called utsava murtis (festival images), distinct from the immovable mula vigraha (main deity) in the sanctum
- The Nataraja (Lord of Dance) is the most iconic Chola bronze form, depicting Shiva performing the cosmic dance (Ananda Tandava) within a ring of fire (prabhamandala)
- The technique survives today at Swamimalai near Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, practised by sthapatis (hereditary sculptors)
- All three sculptures in this case were utsava murtis — sacred processional objects carried during temple festivals
Connection to this news: The three returned bronzes exemplify this tradition — a ~990 CE Nataraja, a 12th-century Somaskanda, and a 16th-century Vijayanagara-era saint figure — all originally processional deities in Tamil Nadu temples.
1970 UNESCO Convention on Illicit Trafficking of Cultural Property
The full title is the "Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property," adopted on 14 November 1970, entering into force on 24 April 1972. It is the primary international legal instrument combating illegal trade in cultural objects. The Convention rests on three pillars: preventive measures (inventories, export certifications), restitution provisions (Article 7(b)(ii) — obligation to seize and return stolen cultural property), and international cooperation.
- Adopted: 14 November 1970; in force: 24 April 1972
- India is a State Party; the US ratified in 1983
- Article 7(b)(ii): requires States Parties to recover and return cultural property stolen from museums, public monuments, or similar institutions
- Article 9: allows States to call on others to impose import controls on endangered cultural categories
- Complemented by the UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects (1995) — 48 contracting states
- The Smithsonian uses 1970 as its provenance benchmark — objects acquired after 1970 without clear documentation are treated as potentially illicit
Connection to this news: The Smithsonian explicitly uses the 1970 UNESCO Convention as its benchmark. The museum's provenance research, combined with IFP photographic evidence (1956-1959) and ASI confirmation, established that the bronzes were removed in violation of both the Convention and Indian law.
Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972
India's principal domestic legislation to regulate dealing in antiquities and prevent illegal export. Enacted in alignment with the 1970 UNESCO Convention, the Act defines an "antiquity" as any object at least 100 years old and an "art treasure" as a human work of art declared as such by the Central Government for its artistic or aesthetic value.
- Section 3: Prohibits export of any antiquity or art treasure except under a permit from the Central Government
- Section 5: No person can sell or offer to sell antiquities without a licence
- Section 25 (Penalties): Export in contravention of Section 3 is punishable with imprisonment of 6 months to 3 years and fine
- Mandates compulsory registration of antiquities; empowers Central Government to compulsorily acquire them
- Administered by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) under the Ministry of Culture
Connection to this news: The ASI confirmed that the removal of these bronzes from Tamil Nadu temples violated Indian laws, including this Act's provisions. The Act's export prohibition forms the domestic legal basis for India's repatriation claims.
India-US Cultural Property Agreement (2024) and Repatriation Efforts
India and the United States signed their first-ever bilateral Cultural Property Agreement on 26 July 2024, on the sidelines of the 46th World Heritage Committee session at Bharat Mandapam, New Delhi. The agreement restricts US import of Indian archaeological material dating from 1.7 million years ago through 1770 CE and ethnological material from the 2nd century BCE to 1947 CE.
- Signed: 26 July 2024, by Secretary of Culture Govind Mohan and US Ambassador Eric Garcetti
- 297 antiquities returned by the US to India in 2024; total of 588 since 2016
- India has repatriated over 640 antiquities from various countries since 2014
- The Doris Wiener Gallery is a known network for illicit antiquities — Nancy Wiener (daughter of Doris) pleaded guilty in 2021 to conspiracy and possession of stolen property involving looted Asian antiquities
Connection to this news: The Smithsonian's return is part of the broader repatriation momentum accelerated by the 2024 India-US Cultural Property Agreement. The involvement of the Doris Wiener Gallery mirrors patterns exposed in the broader antiquities trafficking network.
Key Facts & Data
- Shiva Nataraja: ~990 CE (Chola period); from Sri Bhava Aushadesvara Temple, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu
- Somaskanda: 12th century CE (Chola period); from Visvanatha Temple, Mannargudi, Tamil Nadu
- Saint Sundarar with Paravai: 16th century CE (Vijayanagara period); from Shiva Temple, Veerasolapuram, Tamil Nadu
- Nataraja acquired by museum in 2002 via Doris Wiener Gallery (false provenance); Somaskanda and Sundarar donated by Arthur M. Sackler in 1987
- IFP Photo Archives confirmed in-situ presence of bronzes between 1956-1959
- 1970 UNESCO Convention: adopted 14 November 1970, in force 24 April 1972
- Antiquities and Art Treasures Act: enacted 1972; antiquity threshold = 100 years; export penalty = 6 months to 3 years
- India-US Cultural Property Agreement: signed 26 July 2024
- 297 antiquities returned by US to India in 2024; 588 total since 2016; over 640 from all countries since 2014
- Chola bronzes made using panchaloha (five-metal alloy) via lost-wax (cire perdue / Madhuchishtha Vidhana) technique